Fall 2025, Thursdays 3:45pm-6:30pm (First lecture September 4)

Course: CS 2881R - AI Safety

Instructor: Boaz Barak

Teaching Fellows: Natalie Abreu (natalieabreu@g.harvard.edu), Roy Rinberg (royrinberg@g.harvard.edu), Hanlin Zhang (hanlinzhang@g.harvard.edu)

Course Description: This will be a graduate level course on challenges in alignment and safety of artificial intelligence. We will consider both technical aspects as well as questions on societal and other impacts of the field.

Prerequisites: We require mathematical maturity, and proficiency with proofs, probability, and information theory, as well as the basics of machine learning, at the level of an undergraduate ML course such as Harvard CS 181 or MIT 6.036. You should be familiar with topics such as empirical and population loss, gradient descent, neural networks, linear regression, principal component analysis, etc. On the applied side, you should be comfortable with Python programming, and be able to train a basic neural network.

Important: Read the Course Introduction!

• Course Introduction Blog Post - This contains Homework Zero and important course information. Students who filled in the form will receive more instructions by email.

Questions? If you have any questions about the course, please email harvardcs2881@gmail.com

Related reading by Boaz:

• Machines of Faithful Obedience

• Six Thoughts on AI Safety

Previous versions: Spring 2023 ML Theory Seminar

Spring 2021 ML Theory Seminar

Mini Syllabus

• The course will have 13 in person lectures - each lecture will involve also discussion and presentation of an experiment by a group of students.

• Students are expected to attend all lectures and do the reading in advance as well discuss these in electronic forum.

• The assignments, project, and other requirements for the course will be determined later.

• POTENTIAL CONFLICT OF INTEREST NOTE: In addition to his position at Harvard, Boaz is also a member of the technical staff at OpenAI. The course will include discussions of models from multiple providers, including OpenAI, and students are also encouraged to use AIs from multiple providers while doing their work. If students in the course feel any issue with this conflict, please do not hesitate to contact Boaz, the other staff, or the Harvard SEAS administration. For what it’s worth, I (Boaz) will see it as a great success of the course if its graduates work in AI safety in any capacity, including at academia, non-profit, governments, and any of OpenAI’s competitors.

Schedule

Classes begin September 2, 2025. Reading period December 4-9, 2025.

Note: This schedule is periodically synchronized with the course schedule Google Doc, which contains the most up-to-date version.

Thursday, September 4, 2025

Introduction

• AI impact and timelines overview
• Risks of AI
• AI alignment goals
• Vulnerable world hypothesis
• Lessons from other industries

Experiment:

"Emerging alignment" - Fine-tune a model on outputs from a model with a "good persona" and evaluate performance on other datasets. Try with "subtle alignment" using random inputs.

Resources:

• Nick Bostrom – "The Vulnerable World Hypothesis" (2019)
• Michael Nielsen – "Detailed VWH notes" (2020)
• "AI 2027 Scenario Explorer" (2024)
• Narayanan & Kapoor – "AI as Normal Technology" (2023)
• "Forecasting Research – AI X-risk Persuasion Tournament" (2024)
• Tamay Besiroglu – "Does AI Progress Have a Speed Limit?" (2023)
• Erdil × Cotra × Kokotajlo – "Debate on AI Timelines" (2023)
• Joe Carlsmith – "Is Power-Seeking AI an Existential Risk?" (2022)
• Open Philanthropy – "AI 2023 Review & Forecast" (2024)
• AF – "Glossary of Alignment Terminology" (living doc 2024)
• Epoch AI – "Trends in AI Compute & Algorithmic Progress" (2023)
• Sevilla et al. – "Compute Trends Across Three Eras of Machine Learning" (2022)

Thursday, September 11, 2025

Modern LLM Training

• Modern LLM training overview (DeepSeek R1)
• Pretraining
• Mid training
• Reinforcement Learning (RLHF/RLVF)
• Safety training

Experiment:

Use policy-gradient algorithm to optimize prompt prefixes. Take 10,000 notable people's names, create a logits vector where "You are X" probability is proportional to exp(P[i]). Optimize performance across benchmarks.

Resources:

• DeepSeek AI – "DeepSeek-R1: Incentivizing Reasoning Capability in LLMs via Reinforcement Learning" (2025)
• Sahin Ahmed – "Deepseek R1 Overview" (Medium)
• Raschka, S. – "Understanding Reasoning LLMs" (2024)
• Chowdhery, A., et al. – "PaLM: Scaling Language Modeling" (2022)
• Ouyang, L., et al. – "InstructGPT: Aligning Language Models with Human Feedback" (2022)
• Christiano, P., et al. – "Deep Reinforcement Learning from Human Preferences" (2017)
• Rafailov, R., et al. – "Direct Preference Optimization" (2023)
• Bai, Y., et al. – "Constitutional AI: Harmlessness from AI Feedback" (2022)
• Lee, K., et al. – "Reinforcement Learning from AI Feedback" (2023)
• Guan, J., et al. – "Deliberative Alignment" (2024)
• Raschka, S. – "LLM Architecture Comparison" (2024)
• Qwen GSPO link
• Zheng et al. – "Group Sequence Policy Optimization (GSPO)" (2025)

Thursday, September 18, 2025

Adversarial Robustness, Jailbreaks & Prompt Injection

• Adversarial robustness
• Jailbreaks
• Prompt injection
• Lessons from vision/software security
• Buffer overflow and SQL injection concepts

Experiment:

Test-time scaling laws with red/blue team approach - Red team: Create jailbreak dataset via "many shot" and filtering - Blue team: Analyze model responses with different reasoning efforts

Resources:

• Zou, A., et al. – "Universal and Transferable Adversarial Attacks on Aligned Language Models" (2023)
• OpenAI – "The Instruction Hierarchy" (2023)
• Anthropic – "Constitutional Classifiers" (2024)
• OpenAI – "Trading Inference-Time Compute for Adversarial Robustness" (2024)
• Li et al. – "CAMEL: Communicative Agents for 'Mind' Exploration of Large Language Model Society" (2023)
• Debenedetti et al. – "AgentDojo: A Dynamic Environment to Evaluate Prompt Injection Attacks and Defenses for LLM Agents" (2024)
• Szegedy et al. – "Intriguing Properties of Neural Networks" (2014)
• Prompt-Injection WG – "Prompt Injection Attacks & Defenses" (2023)
• XKCD cartoon
• Oklahoma data leak article
• SQL injection survey

Thursday, September 25, 2025

Model Specifications & Compliance

• Lessons from law
• Value alignment vs. detailed adherence

Experiment:

Model Spec adherence evals - test generalization of model behavior across different domains

Resources:

• OpenAI Model Spec
• Claude system prompts
• Lambert et al. – "RewardBench" (2024)
• Malik et al. – "RewardBench 2" (2025)
• Governance.ai
• Mitchell et al. – "Model Cards for Model Reporting" (2019)
• Bai, Y., et al. – "Constitutional AI: Harmlessness from AI Feedback" (2022)
• Guan, J., et al. – "Deliberative Alignment" (2024)

Thursday, October 2, 2025

Potentially Catastrophic Capabilities & Responsible Scaling

• Responsible scaling policies
• Scalable evaluations
• Safety through capability vs. weakness

Experiment:

Evaluate open and closed source models, potentially using jailbreaking techniques

Resources:

• OpenAI – "Preparing for AGI & Beyond: Responsible Scaling Policy" (2024)
• OpenAI – "Updating Our Preparedness Framework" (2024)
• DeepMind – "Introducing the Frontier Safety Framework" (2024)
• Anthropic – "Announcing Our Updated Responsible Scaling Policy" (2024)
• Shevlane, T., et al. – "Evaluating Frontier Models for Extreme Risks" (2023)
• UK Government – "Frontier AI Regulation Policy Paper" (2024)
• European Union – "AI Act" (2024)
• U.S. White House – "Executive Order 14110 on Safe, Secure & Trustworthy AI" (2023)
• NIST – "AI Risk Management Framework" (2023)
• Sastry, G., et al. – "Computing Power and the Governance of Artificial Intelligence" (2024)
• ISO/IEC – "Management System Standard for AI (42001)" (2024)

Thursday, October 9, 2025

Scheming, Reward Hacking & Deception

• Exploring "bad behavior" tied to training objectives
• Investigating potential deception in monitoring models

Experiment:

Demonstrate how impossible tasks or conflicting objectives lead to lying/scheming

Resources:

• Weng, L. – "Reward Hacking" (2024)
• Carlsmith, J. – "Scheming AIs Report" (2023)
• Zou, A., et al. – "Representation Engineering" (2023)
• Lin, S., et al. – "TruthfulQA: Measuring How Models Mimic Human Falsehoods" (2022)
• Langosco, L., et al. – "Goal Misgeneralization in Deep Reinforcement Learning" (2022)
• Hadfield-Menell, D., et al. – "Inverse Reward Design" (2017)
• Krueger, D., et al. – "Hidden Incentives for Auto-Induced Distributional Shift" (2020)

Thursday, October 16, 2025

Recursive Self-Improvement

• Is AI R&D an "AI-complete" task?

Experiment:

To be determined

Resources:

• Yudkowsky, E. – "AGI Take-off Speeds" (Arbital 2016)

Thursday, October 23, 2025

Economic Impacts of Foundation Models

• Labour substitution & productivity effects
• Inequality & policy responses

Experiment:

To be determined

Resources:

• Goldman Sachs – "Long-Run Impact of AI on GDP & Jobs" (2023)
• Brynjolfsson et al. – "Generative AI at Work" (2023)
• Acemoglu & Restrepo – "AI, Automation & Work" (2024)
• Eloundou et al. – "GPTs are GPTs: An Early Look at the Labor Market Impact Potential of Large Language Models" (2023)
• Roodman – "Modelling Economic Impact of Transformative AI" (2023)

Thursday, October 30, 2025

Military & Surveillance Applications of AI

• Lethal autonomous weapon systems (LAWS)
• Strategic stability & escalation risks
• Mass-scale surveillance infrastructure

Experiment:

To be determined

Resources:

• Allen & Chan – "AI & National Security" (CNAS 2017)
• ICRC – "AI, Autonomous Weapons & IHL" (2024)
• Feldstein – "AI Surveillance Index" (2019)
• DoD – "AI Adoption Strategy" (2023)
• Aschenbrenner – "Situational Awareness" website

Thursday, November 6, 2025

Interpretability

• Activations
• Sparse Auto Encoders (SAE)
• Black box models
• Chain of thought

Experiment:

To be determined

Resources:

• Nanda et al. – "Survey of Mechanistic Interpretability" (2024)
• Olah et al. – "Zoom In: Intro to Circuits" (2020)
• Bricken et al. – "Towards Monosemanticity" (2023)
• Wang et al. – "Interpretability in the Wild: a Circuit for Indirect Object Identification in GPT-2 small" (2022)
• Burns et al. – "Discovering Latent Knowledge in Language Models Without Supervision" (2023)
• Gao et al – "Scaling and evaluating sparse auto encoders"
• Anthropic sparse auto encoders
• Interpretability and deception analysis

Thursday, November 13, 2025

Emotional Reliance and Persuasion

• Domestic & international regulatory approaches
• Standards-setting & audits

Experiment:

To be determined

Resources:

• Resources to be determined

Thursday, November 20, 2025

TBD

• Topics to be determined

Experiment:

To be determined

Resources:

• Resources to be determined

No lecture on Thursday, November 27 – Thanksgiving Break

Thursday, December 4, 2025

AI 2035 - Possible Futures of AI

• Student project presentations and discussion of future directions in AI safety research

Resources:

• Resources to be determined

Schedule content is synchronized with the course schedule document